Vegetation  Zones 
of  the  Earth 

ONE  OF  A SERIES  OF 
PAMPHLETS  ON 

Important  Topics  in  Geography 


By  DOUGLAS  C.  RIDGLEY 
Professor  of  Geography,  Illinois  State  Normal  University 
Normal,  Illinois 


Published  by 

Mcknight  & Mcknight 

Normal’,  Illinois 


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Ixv  31<-aa\J 


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note 

This  pamphlet  is  the  third  of  a series  in  prep- 
aration by  the  writer  dealing  with  important  topics 
in  geography  which  can  not  receive  adequate  treat- 
ment in  the  usual  text  hooks  because  of  the  limited 
space  which  must  necessarily  be  given  to  them. 

The  first  pamphlet  of  the  series  deals  with  the 
topic,  General  Circulation  of  the  Atmosphere;  the 
second  treats  of  the  Rainfall  of  the  Earth;  this  one 
gives  a brief  geographical  description  of  the  Vege- 
tation Zones  of  the  Earth.  A fourth  pamphlet  of 
the  series  on  Population  of  the  Earth  is  in  prepara- 
tion. 

These  pamphlets  are  written  with  the  express 
purpose  of  making  them  helpful  to  pupils  in  the 
geography  classes  of  the  grammar  grades,  and  to 
the  pupils  studying  physical  and  commercial  geog- 
raphy in  the  high  school. 

The  pamphlets  are  intended  as  a help  to,  not 
a substitute  for,  the  regular  text  book  work.  They 
aim  to  state  certain  principles  of  geography  so 
simply  and  so  comprehensively  that  the  study  of 
the  pamphlets  will  enable  the  pupil  better  to  see 
the  broad  relationships  existing  in  geography. 
These  will  be  found  especially  valuable  in  the  study 
of  the  world,  or  any  continent,  as  a whole. 

This  pamphlet  classifies  the  vegetation  zones, 
gives  the  characteristics  of  each,  their  geographical 
distribution,  and  their  value  to  man. 

Douglas  C.  Ridgley. 

Department  of  Geography, 

Illinois  State  Normal  University, 

Normal,  Illinois. 

4 "04ft 


Copyright  1910 
By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 

Introduction.  The  vegetation  of  the  earth  de- 
pends so  largely  on  the  rainfall  of  the  earth,  and 
therefore  on  the  wind  belts  of  the  earth,  that  one 
must  keep  in  mind  the  general  location  and  annual 
shifting  of  the  wind  belts  and  the  causes  and  dis- 
tribution of  rainfall  in  order  to  understand  the  vege- 
tation of  the  earth  and  its  distribution  in  the  dif- 
ferent continents.  The  two  pamphlets,  General  Cir- 
culation of  the  Atmosphere  and  Rainfall  of  the 
Earth,  should  be  studied  before  this  one  on  Vege- 
tation Zones  of  the  Earth. 

To  know  the  wind  belts,  rainfall,  and  vegetation 
of  the  earth,  a continent,  or  a region,  gives  ns  an 
understanding  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
people  live.  This  knowledge  enables  us  better  to 
understand  the  descriptions  we  read  in  onr  text 
books  and  books  of  travel. 

A bird’s-eye  view  of  the  world.  If  we  could 
ascend  some  distance  above  the  earth’s  surface  in 
a balloon,  or  in  a flying  machine,  and  travel  swiftly 
around  the  earth  in  many  directions,  we  should 
easily  see  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered 
by  great  stretches  of  ocean  and  of  land.  The  ocean 
area  would  appear  about  three  times  as  great  as 
the  land  area.  That  is,  three-fourths  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  water,  and  one-fourth  of  its  surface 
is  dry  land. 

If  we  should  now  bring  our  air-ship  somewhat 
nearer  the  earth,  and  move  not  quite  so  swiftly  over 


4 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


the  land  areas,  or  continents,  we  would  find  large 
stretches  of  the  land  surface  presenting  a uniform 
appearance,  hut  very  different  from  other  broad 
areas  of  land  in  other  regions. 

If  we  think  of  the  earth  in  its  natural  state,  before 
changed  by  the  hand  of  man,  we  wbuld  see  from  our 
air-ship  three  kinds  of  regions,  each  determined  by 
the  nature  of  its  vegetation.  These  are  desert , 
grassland,  forest. 

From  our  height,  each  of  these  vegetation  regions 
would  have  quite  a uniform  appearance.  Spots  and 
strips  of  abundant  vegetation  might  be  seen  in  the 
desert.  Narrow  belts  of  forest  might  skirt  the  banks 
of  the  streams  flowing  across  the  grasslands.  Open 
spaces  covered  with  grasses  might  be  seen  in  the 
forest  tracts.  All  these,  however,  would  appear  to 
us,  as  we  see  them  from  our  swiftly  moving  air-ship, 
only  as  small  patches  and  narrow  lines  on  the  other- 
wise uniform  area  of  vegetation. 

The  entire  land  surface,  therefore,  can  be  classi- 
fied, in  its  natural  condition,  as  desert,  grassland, 
forest.  All  farmlands  have  been  developed  from  one 
or  the  other  of  these  vegetation  regions.  Farms 
yielding  bountiful  crops  are  to  be  found  in  each  of 
these  areas  of  natural  vegetation.  The  forests  have 
been  cleared  away  and  the  lands  planted  in  crops 
of  many  kinds.  The  grasslands  have  been  plowed 
and  turned  into  farms  with  much  less  labor  than  the 
forest  areas.  The  deserts  have  been  supplied  with 
water  by  the  construction  of  dams  and  ditches,  and 
crops  of  surprising  abundance  and  excellence  have 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OE  THE  EARTH 


5 


been  harvested.  It  is  well  for  ns  to  learn  something 
of  these  great  regions  of  natural  vegetation,  and  then 
see  how  man  has  made  use  of  them  to  his  own 
advantage. 

Conditions  necessary  for  plant  growth.  All 
plants  require  heat , moisture , soil.  If  any  one  is 
lacking,  there  can  he  no  plant  life.  If  all  three  were 
present  in  exactly  the  same  combination  in  all  parts 
of  the  earth,  the  earth’s  surface  would  be  uniform  in 
its  vegetation.  A difference  in  vegetation  is  brought 
about  by  differences  in  these  three  factors  in  dif- 
ferent regions. 

While  soils  differ  very  greatly  from  each  other, 
soil  of  some  kind  and  of  sufficient  fertility  to  support 
abundant  vegetation  of  some  sort,  if  the  proper  con- 
ditions of  heat  and  moisture  are  present,  is  found  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  An  entire  lack  of 
vegetation  in  any  region  is  hardly  ever  due  to  the 
kind  of  soil. 

Heat  and  moisture  are  conditions  of  climate.  The 
amount  and  distribution  of  heat  and  moisture 
throughout  the  year  determine  whether  a region  shall 
have  vegetation  or  not. 

Note.  Examine  your  geography  text  book  for 
a vegetation  map  of  the  world.  Make  use  of  it  during 
the  study  of  this  pamphlet.  A good  vegetation  map 
is  found  in  Longmans’  Atlas,  map  7.  This  atlas 
should  be  in  every  school,  $1.50.  Obtain  through 
local  book  dealer. 

1.  Deserts.  A region  may  have  good  soil  and 
suitable  temperature  for  growth  of  plants,  but 


6 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


yet  be  a hot  desert  for  lack  of  sufficient  rainfall. 
Such  regions  are  the  deserts  of  Sahara,  and 
Kalahari  in  Africa;  the  deserts  of  central  Asia; 
which  are  but  a continuation  of  the  Sahara,  stretch- 
ing from  Arabia  to  Mongolia ; the  deserts  of  central 
Australia,  southwestern  United  States  and  northern 
Mexico,  and  the  long,  narrow  desert  of  Atacama  on 
the  west  coast  of  South  America.  These  hot  deserts 
are  not  without  vegetation,  but  the  plants  are  few, 
and  are  especially  adapted  to  the  region.  Some  of 
the  plants  of  the  desert  are  the  cactus,  sage  brush, 
century  plant,  yucca,  gladiolus,  tulip,  dwarf  pines, 
and  junipers. 

The  oasis,  with  its  rich  growth  of  grass  or 
abundant  cultivated  crops,  is  a spot  in  the  desert 
where  the  roots  of  the  plants  obtain  a good  supply 
of  underground  water.  The  vegetation  of  an  oasis 
is  not  to  be  considered  as  vegetation  of  the  desert 
proper.  Like  the  crops  of  our  irrigated  regions,  the 
vegetation  of  the  oasis  obtains  a supply  of  water 
from  some  source  other  than  from  the  rainfall  of 
the  locality. 

Cold  deserts  occur  where  the  temperature  is  too 
cold  to  permit  of  abundant  growth  of  vegetation. 
The  cold  desert  may  have  no  plant  life  at  all  where 
great  sheets  of  ice,  or  glaciers,  cover  the  earth.  Most 
of  Greenland  is  covered  by  an  ice  sheet.  A much 
larger  ice  sheet  is  found  around  the  south  pole  on 
the  large  land  mass  known  as  Antarctica.  This  ice 
desert  is  larger  than  the  United  States. 

Where  the  snow  and  ice  melts  entirely  during 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EAKTH 


7 


the  summer,  there  may  be  in  the  cold  desert  an 
abundant  growth  of  mosses  and  lichens,  some  stunted 
bushes  and  dwarfed  trees,  with  numerous  hardy 
flowering  plants  blooming  profusely  during  the  short 
summer.  Such  a region  is  called  the  tundra.  The 
tundra  of  Canada  is  known  as  the  Barren  Lands. 
The  tundra  regions  of  the  world  are  found  in  North 
America  and  Eurasia,  forming  a broad  belt  circling 
the  Arctic  Ocean;  and  in  the  southern  extremity  of 
South  America. 

A cold  desert  region  also  exists  on  the  tops  of 
high  mountains  of  all  latitudes.  The  vegetation 
consists  of  alpine  plants,  and  is  of  such  nature  as  is 
found  only  at  high  altitudes.  These  plants  may  he 
rhododendrons,  dwarf  pines,  dwarf  junipers,  anem- 
ones, or  other  herbs  and  shrubs. 

2.  Grasslands.  Throughout  the  temperate  and 
torrid  zones  of  the  earth  there  are  great  stretches  of 
territory  whose  natural  vegetation  is  the  grasses. 
In  these  regions  the  cold  is  not  so  intense  nor  the 
rainfall  so  slight  as  to  prevent  a considerable  devel- 
opment of  plant  life. 

The  region  may  be  in  the  temperate  zone,  where 
there  are  the  four  well-marked  seasons  of  spring, 
summer,  fall,  and  winter.  The  rainfall  is  neither 
scanty  nor  heavy,  but  light  or  moderate, — 10  to  30 
inches  per  year.  Rain  or  snow  falls  in  every  month 
of  the  year,  with  the  largest  amount  of  rainfall  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  of  spring  and  early  summer. 
The  drier  edge  of  this  grassland  region  grades  grad- 


8 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


ually  into  the  hot  desert , and  the  more  moist  edge 
into  the  temperate  forest  lands. 

These  temperate  grasslands  are  known  as 
steppes.  The  North  American  steppes  are  named 
prairies.  The  prairies  or  steppes  of  North  America 
form  a broad  belt  extending  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
Mississippi  river  to  the  Rocky  mountains  and  from 
northern  Mexico  to  the  60th  parallel  in  Canada.  East 
of  the  Mississippi  most  of  Illinois  and  much  of  Wis- 
consin are  in  the  prairie  lands,  while  west  of  the 
Mississippi  much  of  Missouri,  and  most  of  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana  are  in  the  belt  of  temperate  forests. 
The  South  American  steppes  are  found  mainly  in 
Argentina  from  the  vicinity  of  the  La  Plata  river 
southward. 

The  Old  World  steppes  reach  their  greatest  devel- 
opment in  Eurasia,  where  they  sweep  in  a broad  belt 
of  unbroken  extent  from  the  plains  of  Hungary 
through  Roumania,  southern  Russia,  southern 
Siberia  and  northern  China,  almost  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific.  They  are  found  also  in  northern  Africa 
and  along  the  Nile,  forming  the  most  fertile  portions 
of  northern  Africa  and  the  Nile  valley.  They  exist 
in  southern  Africa,  and  in  eastern  and  western 
Australia. 

While  grasses  are  the  principal  vegetation  of  the 
steppes,  there  are  many  other  plants  of  importance. 
Along  the  stream  courses  there  are  usually  belts  of 
forest  land  These  provided  shelter  for  the  wild 
animals,  and  were  the  first  regions  to  be  occupied  by 
the  pioneer.  The  flowering  plants  of  the  steppes  are 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


9 


numerous  and  beautiful.  Among  them  are  the  tulips, 
lilies,  euphorbias,  mints,  goldenrod  and  many  others. 

In  the  torrid  zone,  and  extending  in  some  places 
into  the  equatorward  edge  of  the  temperate  zones, 
are  grasslands  of  somewhat  different  type.  These 
regions  are  warm  throughout  the  year,  but  there  are 
heavy  rains  at  one  season  of  the  year,  with  almost 
no  rainfall  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Instead  of 
four  well-marked  seasons,  we  have  but  two.  These 
are  known  as  the  rainy  season  (summer)  and  dry 
season  (winter). 

With  abundant  rainfall  and  the  warm  tropical 
temperature,  vegetation  grows  most  rapidly.  But 
only  those  plants  can  succeed  which  are  able  to  grow, 
blossom,  and  produce  seed  in  a short  period  of  time. 
These  are  not  trees,  but  grasses.  These  tropical 
grasslands  are  known  as  savanas.  They  have  an 
abundant  growth  of  grasses  during  the  rainy  season. 
In  the  dry  season  the  ground  is  covered  with  a dry, 
straw-like  covering  of  withered  grasses. 

The  savanas  include  portions  of  southern  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco,  the 
campos  of  Brazil,  the  pampas  of  northern  Argentina, 
great  areas  of  central  Africa,  much  of  India,  and 
portions  of  northern  Australia.  Europe  is  too  far 
from  the  equator  to  have  savana  lands. 

As  in  the  steppes,  grass  is  the  most  important, 
but  not  the  only  vegetation  of  the  savanas.  Where 
soil  conditions  are  favorable  for  holding  moisture 
throughout  the  year  as  near  bodies  of  water,  in 


10 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


depressions,  and  elsewhere,  forests  may  be  developed 
more  or  less  abundantly.  Clumps  of  trees  and  even 
single  trees  are  found  here  and  there  throughout 
most  of  the  savana  lands.  They  are  usually  stunted, 
gnarled,  dwarfed  trees.  The  baobab  or  monkey- 
bread  tree  is  a large  tree  found  growing  singly  over 
large  stretches  of  the  African  savana.  It  requires 
open  country  for  its  growth  and  is  never  found  in 
forests.  Flowering  plants  are  found  on  the  savanas, 
but  they  are  not  so  abundant  as  on  the  steppes  and 
prairies. 

The  fact  that  the  savana  lands  contain  a consider- 
able growth  of  trees  is  well  shown  by  three  vegeta- 
tion maps  of  Africa  found  in  three  standard  books. 
They  all  agree  fairly  well  on  the  location  and  extent 
of  the  hot  deserts  and  the  dense  tropical  forests. 
There  is  an  interesting  difference,  however,  with 
reference  to  Central  Africa  lying  between  20  degrees 
north  latitude  and  20  degrees  south  latitude,  and 
including  fully  one-half  of  the  continent.  One  map 
shows  most  of  this  region  as  savanas , another  shows 
much  of  the  same  region  as  open  tropical  forest, 
while  the  third  indicates  the  region  as  grassland  with 
woodland  more  or  less  abundantly  represented.  All 
the  map-makers  endeavor  to  represent  exactly  the 
same  thing,  that  is,  the  vegetation  of  central  Africa. 
One  map  leads  us  to  consider  the  region  as  mainly 
grassland,  which  it  really  is;  the  second  map  indi- 
cates that  there  is  an  important  forest  growth,  which 
is  also  true ; and  the  third  map  points  out  that  grass- 
lands are  most  important,  but  that  there  are  regions 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OE  THE  EARTH 


11 


of  abundant  forests  as  well  as  more  scattered  tree 
growth. 

3.  Forests.  All  that  portion  of  the  land  surface 
not  included  in  deserts  and  grasslands  is  here  classed 
as  forests.  The  vegetation  of  these  forest  regions 
of  the  world  differs  greatly  in  different  regions  as 
to  the  size,  appearance,  kind,  and  amount  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  term  forest  as  thus  broadly  used  includes 
plants  from  the  low,  evergreen  woo.dy  plants  with 
small  leathery  leaves  to  the  giant  trees  of  the  tropics 
intermingled  with  a dense  and  almost  impenetrable 
undergrowth  of  vines  and  creeping  plants. 

The  boundary  between  grasslands  and  forests 
is  not  a sharp  line,  but  a broad  belt  in  which  one 
grades  into  the  other.  Even  large  areas  are  classified 
as  grasslands  on  one  vegetation  map,  and  as  open 
forest  lands  on  another.  Grasses  and  forests,  in 
their  natural  state,  are  often  contending  for  the 
same  territory.  Which  shall  win  the  victory  may 
depend  in  some  cases  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  but 
in  most  cases  on  the  kind  of  climate. 

A good  forest  climate  consists  of  a warm  growing 
season,  a subsoil  which  is  always  moist,  with  damp 
and  calm  air,  especially  in  winter.  The  forest  will 
thrive  whether  the  moisture  comes  from  rain  or  from 
underground  sources ; whether  the  rain  falls  in 
frequent  showers  or  not;  provided  the  subsoil  into 
which  the  roots  extend  is  always  moist. 

A good  grassland  climate  consists  of  a warm 
growing  season,  with  frequent  rains  during  this 
season  so  that  the  surface  soil  in  which  grass  roots 


12 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


are  mainly  found  will  be  constantly  moist.  Along 
water  courses,  even  if  the  annual  rainfall  is  light, 
the  constant  seepage  of  the  water  towards  the 
streams  keeps  the  subsoil  near  the  streams 
always  moist,  and  trees  are  usually  found.  Far- 
ther from  the  streams,  the  frequent  rains  in 
spring  and  early  summer  keep  the  surface  in  excel- 
lent condition  for  the  growth  and  development  of 
grasses  during  much  of  the  year,  while  the  subsoil 
would  be  too  dry  for  the  growth  of  trees. 

As  we  have  found  one  kind  of  desert  in  the  colder 
portions  of  the  earth  and  another  in  the  warmer 
regions;  one  kind  of  grasslands  in  the  temperate 
zone  and  another  in  the  torrid  zone ; so  we  shall  find 
two  kinds  of  forests,  one  in  middle  latitudes  and 
another  near  the  equator.  These  are  the  temperate 
forest  and  tropical  forest. 

The  temperate  forest  is  found  ranging  in  latitude 
from  Florida  to  Alaska ; from  the  Mediterranean  and 
northeastern  China  to  regions  bordering  the  Arctic 
in  the  northern  hemisphere;  and  in  small  areas  of 
the  southern  extremities  of  each  of  the  three 
southern  continents,  and  in  New  Zealand. 

This  broad  belt  of  temperate  forest  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  extends  east-west,  with  irreg- 
ular boundaries  on  its  north  and  south  edges,  entirely 
across  the  continents  of  North  America,  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  includes  that  part  of  Africa  lying  north 
of  the  Atlas  mountains. 

The  temperate  forests  of  northern  latitudes  con- 
sist of  conifers,  that  is,  cone-bearing  trees,  usually 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


13 


evergreen.  The  most  important  conifers  are  the 
pines.  Others  are  the  hemlock,  spruce,  fir,  cedar,  and 
larch.  Most  of  onr  soft  wood  lumber  is  obtained 
from  these  forests  of  pine  and  other  conifers. 

South  of  the  conifers  is  an  extensive  forest  of 
deciduous  trees,  that  is,  trees  which  shed  their  leaves 
in  winter.  The  oak,  ash,  elm,  hickory,  and  walnut 
are  common  deciduous  trees.  Our  hardwood  lumber 
is  obtained  from  the  deciduous  forests.  The  great 
deciduous  forests  of  the  world  occupied  that  part 
of  the  United  States  south  of  the  G-reat  Lakes  and 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river ; and  all  of  central  and 
western  Europe.  These  hardwood  forests  have  been 
largely  cleared,  and  these  regions  now  form  the  most 
important  farmlands  of  the  world. 

A third  kind  of  forest  growth  is  found  in  those 
regions  of  the  temperate  zone  which  have  rainy 
winters  and  very  dry  summers.  The  vegetation  con- 
sists of  low,  evergreen  woody  plants  with  small 
leathery  leaves.  These  are  the  regions  which  are 
occupied  by  the  equatorward  edge  of  the  westerlies 
during  the  winter  (rainy  season),  and  by  the  horse 
latitudes  and  trade  winds  in  the  summer  (dry 
season).  This  may  be  called  the  region  of  evergreen 
shrubs. 

Such  regions  are  found  in  both  hemispheres, 
mainly  between  30  and  40  degrees  latitude,  as  fol- 
lows : 

(1)  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  including  the 
southern  peninsulas  of  Europe,  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  portions  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa; 


14 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


(2)  in  southern  California,  south  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, between  the  Pacific  ocean  and  the  mountains ; 

(3)  in  Chili  about  30  to  40  degrees  south  latitude; 

(4)  at  southwest  tip  of  Africa  in  Cape  Colony; 

(5)  in  southwestern  and  southern  Australia. 

The  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  temperate  forests 
varies  widely.  In  the  latitude  of  the  United  States, 
we  usually  have  grasslands  if  the  rainfall  is  less  than 
30  inches  per  year,  and  forests  if  the  rainfall  is  more 
than  30  inches.  However,  great  areas  of  the  conifer- 
ous forests  of  North  America  and  Eurasia,  in  high 
latitudes,  thrive  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  between 
10  and  20  inches  per  year,  and  extensive  forest  areas 
are  found  in  Canada  and  Siberia,  where  the  rainfall 
is  less  than  10  inches. 

In  these  northern  latitudes  evaporation  is  not  so 
rapid,  hence  a larger  proportion  of  the  water 
remains  in  the  soil.  The  subsoil  at  a depth  of  a very 
few  feet  remains  frozen  throughout  the  year,  even 
in  summer,  so  that  the  water  is  not  lost  by  sinking 
into  the  soil. 

The  northern  limit  of  the  temperate  forest  is 
determined  by  the  summer  temperature.  Trees  can 
not  grow  unless  they  have  a growing  season  of  six 
or  eight  weeks,  during  which  the  average  tempera- 
ture for  this  period  is  50  degrees  Fahrenheit,  or 
higher.  For  this  reason,  we  find  the  northern  edge 
of  the  temperate  forest  following  quite  closely  the 
50  degree  isotherm  for  July.  The  winter  tempera- 
ture may  be  very  low.  The  coldest  region  of  the 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


15 


earth  is  found  in  the  temperate  forests  of  northern 
Siberia. 

The  tropical  forest.  In  the  torrid  zone  where  the 
climate  is  rainy  throughout  the  year,  or  where  the 
subsoil  remains  moist  through  the  dry  season,  we 
have  forests.  The  rainiest  region  of  the  earth  is  to 
be  found  near  the  equator  where  the  doldrum  belt 
migrates  across  the  country  bringing  its  heavy  rains. 
Farther  and  farther  from  the  equator  the  rainy 
season  grows  shorter,  the  dry  season  longer,  and  the 
forests  disappear.  In  the  dense  tropical  forest  the 
trees  are  large,  vines  and  climbing  plants  are  numer- 
ous, and  the  traveler  can  find  his  way  through  the 
forest  only  with  difficulty.  Where  the  rain  falls  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  year  the  tropical 
forests  are  green  all  the  year.  Where  the  dry  season 
is  of  considerable  length,  and  forests  exist,  the  trees 
shed  their  leaves  in  the  latter  part  of  the  dry  season. 

The  tropical  forests  of  North  America  are  found 
south  of  the  tropic  of  cancer  in  southern  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies.  South 
America  has  a larger  extent  of  tropical  forest  than 
any  other  continent.  It  occupies  most  of  the  Amazon 
basin  and  much  of  the  coasts  of  Venezuela,  the 
Guianas,  and  Brazil. 

Europe  is  too  far  from  the  equator  to  have  trop- 
ical forests.  Southeastern  Asia,  the  Philippines,  and 
the  East  Indies  support  great  areas  of  tropical 
forest.  One  map  represents  most  of  India  as  having 
been  covered  in  its  natural  state  with  savanas,  while 
another  indicates  that  the  savana  land  contained 


16 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


considerable  forest  areas.  Northern  Australia  con- 
tains som6  tropical  forests.  In  Africa  areas  of  dense 
tropical  forests  are  found  in  the  basins  of  the  Niger 
and  the  Kongo,  while  a considerable  forest  growth 
is  found  among  the  savana  lands  of  central  Africa. 
The  island  of  Madagascar  contains  much  tropical 
forests. 

From  the  tropical  forests  we  obtain  rubber; 
mahogany,  ebony,  teak,  and  other  woods  valuable 
for  their  timber;  and  numerous  plants  used  for 
medicinal  purposes. 

Study  the  following  outline.  Write  it  from 
memory : 

(1.  Cold  deserts 
(2.  Hot  deserts 
( 3.  Steppes  and  prairies 
( 4.  Savanas 
( 5.  Temperate  forests 
( 6.  Tropical  forests 

The  six  numbered  regions  we  shall  call  the  six 
vegetation  zones  of  the  world.  Note  that  one  zone 
of  each  pair  is  found  in  high  latitudes  and  the  other 
in  low  latitudes. 

These  six  vegetation  zones  are  well  described 
in  Herbertson’s  Man  and  His  Work,  the  Macmillan 
Co.,  60c,  They  are  well  shown  in  Longmans’  Atlas, 
map  7.  The  atlas  map  shows  the  vegetation  by  17 
different  colors.  To  simplify  this  representation 
of  the  map  to  the  classification  given  above,  make 
the  following  combinations  of  numbered  areas  as 
found  on  the  map. 


Deserts 

Vegetation  Zones ) ~ , , 

° , { Grasslands 

of  the  World  ) 

Forests 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OE  THE  EARTH 


17 


1.  Cold  deserts — 1,  2 , 3 of  the  atlas  map. 

2.  Hot  deserts — 4,  most  of  6 (including  that  part 
of  6 surrounding  4). 

3.  Steppes  and  prairies — 5,  part  of  6 (including 
that  part  of  6 on  the  margins  of  5),  7,  8. 

4.  Savanas — 15,  16. 

5.  Temperate  forests — 9,  10,  11,  17. 

6.  Tropical  forests — 12, 13, 14. 

Maps  of  vegetation  zones.  On  an  outline  map  of 
the  world  construct  a vegetation  map.  Use  different 
colors  or  different  shadings  for  the  different  vegeta- 
tion zones.  If  your  text  hook  contains  a good  vege- 
tation map  of  the  world,  it  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  this  world  map. 

If  Longmans’  Atlas,  map  7,  is  used,  combine  the 
atlas  numbers  as  indicated  above,  and  make  a map 
in  six  colors  or  six  shades.  On  the  map  place  neatly 
a key  to  the  six  colors  of  the  map.  The  key  accom- 
panying the  Longmans’  Atlas  map  suggests  how  to 
do  this  work  neatly  and  accurately. 

As  each  continent  is  taken  up  for  special  study 
with  the  advanced  geography  for  a text  book,  one  of 
the  most  helpful  maps  to  be  made  is  a vegetafion 
map  of  the  continent.  Such  a map  should  be  con- 
structed by  each  pupil  on  an  outline  map  of  the 
continent,  from  the  vegetation  map  of  the  world  in 
text  book  or  Longmans’  Atlas.  While  drawing 
such  a map  care  should  be  taken  to  show  accurately 
the  limits  of  each  vegetation  zone,  to  note  the  coun- 
tries and  parts  of  countries  occupied  by  each  zone 


18 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


and  to  consider  the  influence  of  each  vegetation  zone 
on  the  lives  of  the  people  who  inhabit  the  region. 

Full  suggestions  as  to  how  to  have  pupils  con- 
struct a series  of  maps  for  the  study  of  a single 
continent  are  given  in  the  preceding  pamphlet  of  this 
series,  Rainfall  of  the  Earth.  This  series  includes 
a vegetation  map.  The  series  consists  of  two  maps 
of  the  world,  and  10  maps  of  the  continent.* 

Location  of  vegetation  zones  by  latitude.  Study 
the  world  vegetation  maps  from  the  books,  or  from 
the  map  constructed  by  the  pupil.  A good  notion  of 
the  arrangement  of  vegetation  zones  in  different 
latitudes  may  be  had  by  traveling  in  a straight  line 
(see  world  map)  from  the  northern  shore  of  Siberia, 
at  110  degrees  east  longitude,  to  the  equator  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  then  southward  near  the  west 
coast  of  Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This 
journey  carries  us  across  Siberia,  southwest  Asia, 
a portion  of  the  Sahara,  central,  and  southern  Africa. 

We  would  at  first  cross  a portion  of  the.  cold 
desert,  the  tundra  region  of  Siberia,  with  its  cold, 
bleak  lands,  barren  of  vegetation  save  for  mosses, 
stunted  shrubs,  and  other  plants  which  spring  into 
life  with  the  long  days  of  the  short  summer. 

While  yet  within  the  Arctic  Circle  we  would  enter 
the  northern  edge  of  the  temperate  forest  of  Siberia, 
the  most  extensive  forest  in  the  world.  We  pass 

*Publishers’  Note. — Outline  maps  of  the  world  and  each  conti- 
nent especially  designed  for  such  work  as  the  foregoing  are  issued 
by  the  publishers  of  this  pamphlet,  McKnight  & McKnight,  Normal, 
Illinois.  The  maps  will  be  sent  prepaid  for  lc  each,  or  80c  per 
hundred. 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


19 


from  the  Siberian  tundra  into  regions  of  stunted 
copses,  which  develop  to  the  south  into  better  and 
better  woodland  until  we  enter  the  vast  unbroken 
forest  of  conifers.  For  nearly  a thousand  miles  we 
may  continue  our  journey  across  this  great  forest. 

Towards  the  southern  edge,  between  50  and  55 
degrees  north  latitude,  open  spaces  appear,  the 
grassland  areas  increase  in  size,  and  we  come  out 
upon  the  steppes  of  southern  Eussia,  which  are  much 
like  our  prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi.  This  is  a 
narrower  belt  from  north  to  south,  only  a few 
hundred  miles  at  most,  but  it  stretches  for  5,000 
miles  and  more  from  west  to  east  from  the  plains 
of  Hungary  to  the  plains  of  Manchuria.  The  Trans- 
Siberian  railway  traverses  this  great  steppe  land 
in  its  east-west  extent,  and  it  is  becoming  rapidly 
settled  by  industrious  and  thrifty  herdsmen  and 
farmers. 

As  we  proceed,  the  rich  grassy  steppes  change 
to  poorer  and  poorer  grasslands,  and  then  pass  into 
the  hot  desert  regions  of  Turkestan,  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  northern  Africa.  In  this  broad  desert  region 
.millions  of  people  make  their  homes,  providing  the 
necessaries  of  life  from  their  herds,  which  find  food 
in  the  more  favored  spots,  or  from  the  crops  of  the 
oases  and  valleys,  which  have  a very  fertile  soil,  and 
which  are  supplied  with  water  from  underground 
sources,  or  by  means  of  irrigation. 

As  we  cross  the  20th  parallel  of  north  latitude 
we  come  into  a region  of  light  but  increasing  rainfall. 
Grasses  appear  and  become  more  abundant  as  we 


20 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


continue  on  our  journey.  We  are  now  in  the  savanas 
of  central  Africa.  Here  the  heavy  rains  of  the  wet 
season  produce  abundant  growth  of  grass  and  culti- 
vated crops,  while  the  dry  season  which  follows  dries 
out  the  soil  and  withers  the  grass.  This  region  is 
known  as  the  Sudan,  and  supports  a larger  popula- 
tion than  any  other  extensive  region  of  Africa. 
Grazing  and  farming  are  the  chief  occupations. 

As  we  cross  the  savanas  the  scattered  single  trees 
become  more  and  more  abundant,  groves  and  forests 
appear,  and  as  we  approach  the  equator  we  pass  into 
the  dense  tropical  forests  of  Africa  with  such 
abundant  growth  of  trees,  vines,  and  creeping  plants 
as  to  make  progress  in  travel  exceedingly  difficult. 

As  we  continue  our  journey  southward  in  the 
western  part  of  Africa  we  cross  the  vegetation  zones 
in  reverse  order, — from  the  tropical  forests  we  pass 
into  the  savanas,  hot  deserts,  steppes,  and  temperate 
forests,  while,  away  to  the  south,  beyond  the  South- 
ern Ocean,  lies  the  greatest  cold  desert  of  the  world, 
equal  in  area  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  not 
inhabited  by  a human  being.  This  is  the  continent 
of  Antarctica. 

A study  of  the  vegetation  map  of  the  world  will 
show  how  the  six  vegetation  zones  in  other  continents 
take  the  same  general  position  with  reference  to 
latitude  as  described  above,  but  the  direction  and 
extent  of  the  vegetation  zones  are  very  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  surface  features  of  the  continents,  and 
the  location  of  continents  with  reference  to  the 


oceans. 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


21 


Vegetation  zones  and  wind  belts.  The  close  rela- 
tionship of  vegetation  zones  to  rainfall  has  already 
been  shown.  This  indicates  also  a close  relationship 
between  vegetation  zones  and  wind  belts.  We  shall 
begin  at  the  equator,  and  consider  the  relationship 
of  each  vegetation  zone  to  the  different  wind  belts 
which  influence  it. 

1.  The  tropical  forests  are  found  where  there  is 
abundant  rain  and  no  very  long  dry  season.  This  is 
near  the  equator,  where  the  doldrums  bring  long 
rainy  seasons,  or  on  high  east  coasts,  where  the 
trade  winds , as  well  as  the  doldrums,  produce  heavy 
rainfall,  or  in  the  monsoon  winds,  which  bring  suffi- 
cient moisture.  The  dry  seasons  which  come  with 
the  trade  winds  are  not  of  sufficient  length  to 
prevent  forest  growth. 

2.  The  savanas  are  occupied  alternately  by  the 
doldrums  and  trade  winds.  The  doldrums  bring  the 
rainy  season  with  its  period  of  rapid  growth.  The 
trade  winds  bring  the  dry  season  with  its  drought 
and  parched  grasses. 

3.  The  hot  deserts  lie  in  the  trade  winds , horse 
latitudes , and  westerlies.  Desert  conditions  are  the 
natural  results  of  the  trade  winds  and  horse  lati- 
tudes. These  two  wind  belts  are  responsible  for 
most  of  the  great  desert  areas  of  the  world.  The 
hot  deserts  extend  into  the  westerlies  if  the  region 
lies  to  the  leeward  of  high  mountains,  or  is  so  far 
removed  from  the  oceans  that  moisture  falls  as 
rain  before  the  region  is  reached. 

4.  The  steppes  and  prairies  have  their  best,  and 


22 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


their  typical  development  in  the  westerlies.  The 
equatorward  edge  of  the  steppes  in  some  regions 
are  influenced  by  the  horse  latitudes  and  trades 
during  the  summer. 

5.  The  temperate  forest  is  almost  wholly  in  the 
westerlies.  The  regions  of  the  temperate  forests 
described  as  evergreen  shrub,  lie  in  the  westerlies 
in  the  winter,  when  they  have  their  wet  season ; and 
in  the  horse  latitudes  and  trades  in  the  summer,  when 
they  have  their  dry  season. 

6.  The  cold  desert,  except  the  alpine  region,  lies 
wholly  in  the  poleward  edge  of  the  westerlies,  mainly 
within  the  polar  circles.  The  alpine  region  of  moun- 
tains is  found  in  all  latitudes,  therefore  in  all  wind 
belts. 

Man’s  use  of  the  vegetation  zones.  All  people 
live  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  six  natural  vegeta- 
tion zones,  and  all  the  six  vegetation  zones'  have 
people  living  in  them.  Some  of  the  vegetation  zones 
are  poorly  adapted  to  support  human  life,  while 
others  are  capable  of  supporting  a very  dense 
population. 

Food,  clothing,  and  shelter  are  often  spoken  of 
as  the  necessaries  of  life.  This  means  that  human 
life  can  not  be  supported  in  a region  unless  the  region 
furnishes  materials  for  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 
In  some  tropical  regions  little  or  no  clothing  is  neces- 
sary, and  shelter  may  be  of  the  most  primitive  kind. 
For  most  of  the  people  of  the  world,  however,  cloth- 
ing and  shelter  are  very  necessary.  Food  is  essential 
to  all  people  in  all  places.  The  density  of  population 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OE  THE  EARTH 


23 


of  any  region  depends  very  largely  on  its  ability  to 
furnish  the  materials  necessary  for  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter. 

The  deserts  support  only  a very  sparse  popula- 
tion. No  human  being  makes  his  home  on  the  great 
areas  of  the  cold  desert  continually  covered  with  ice. 
The  great  ice  sheet  around  the  south  pole,  and  that 
of  Greenland,  has  no  inhabitants.  Greenland  has  an 
area  about  equal  to  that  part  of  the  United  States 
lying  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  but  only  12,000 
people  live  in  Greenland.  These  live  on  the  margins 
of  the  land  not  covered  by  the  ice  sheet,  and  obtain 
their  living  from  the  sea. 

That  part  of  the  cold  desert  known  as  the  tundra, 
or  barren  lands,  is  very  sparsely  populated  by  wan- 
dering tribes  who  gain  a livelihood  by  hunting, 
fishing,  or  keeping  herds  of  reindeer.  The  entire 
cold  desert  of  the  world  probably  does  not  contain 
so  many  people  as  are  found  in  a single  one  of  the 
well-developed  agricultural  states  of  the  United 
States. 

The  hot  desert  regions  of  the  world  contain  many 
more  people  than  the  cold  deserts.  They  do  not 
obtain  their  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  however, 
from  the  desert  proper.  The  scattered  steppe  lands 
in  favorable  localities,  the  fertile  oases,  and  the 
irrigated  valleys  are  the  productive  regions. 
Employment  is  also  furnished  in  carrying  commer- 
cial products  to  and  from  these  settled  regions,  and 
also  entirely  across  the  desert. 

Arabia  has  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the  United 


24 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  with  a population 
less  than  one-half  that  of  New  Jersey.  On  a vegeta- 
tion map  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Baluchistan  are 
shown  as  desert  or  semi-desert  over  their  entire 
extent.  The  three  countries  together  are  equal  in 
size  to  one-third  the  United  States,  and  contain  a 
population  almost  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
New  England  States.  One-third  of  the  United  States, 
most  desert-like  in  character,  contains  fewer  people 
than  any  one  of  the  states  of  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Illinois,  or  Ohio. 

The  grasslands  of  the  world  vary  widely  in  their 
ability  to  support  a population.  Poor  steppe  land  is 
only  somewhat  better  than  desert  land,  and  not  to 
be  compared  in  value  with  the  fertile  oases  and  rich 
irrigated  lands  scattered  throughout  the  desert  lands 
of  the  world.  The  better  steppe  lands  support  large 
herds  and  an  important  population.  The  best  steppe 
lands,  such  as  the  black  earth  region  of  southern 
Russia,  and  the  eastern  prairie  lands  of  North 
America,  are  suitable  for  cultivation,  and  furnish 
great  areas  of  the  richest  farmland  of  the  world, 
supporting  a dense  population. 

The  savana  lands,  like  the  steppes,  vary  from 
poor  to  very  excellent  lands  for  human  occupation. 
The  savanas  of  the  Sudan  support  the  densest  negro 
population  of  Africa. 

Forest  lands,  just  as  grasslands,  may  be  very 
good  or  very  poor  for  human  life.  In  their  natural 
state  they  are  occupied  by  hunting  and  fishing  tribes. 
Only  a sparse  population  of  hunting  tribes  can  find 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EABTH 


25 


support  in  any  region.  The  coniferous  forests  grow 
usually  in  high  latitudes,  and  occupy  great  areas  of 
poor,  sandy  soil.  Even  when  cleared,  these  conifer- 
ous forest  regions  may  be  worthless  for  agriculture, 
and,  therefore,  for  human  occupation.  Large  areas 
of  coniferous  forest  on  good  soil  and  in  good  climate 
for  agriculture  have  been  cleared,  and  now  support 
many  people.  Much  of  the  British  Isles  was  covered 
with  conifers. 

The  soil,  heat,  and  rainfall  necessary  to  the  devel- 
opment of  deciduous  forests  are  very  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  important  agricultural  crops.  The 
great  deciduous  forests  of  central  and  western 
Europe,  and  of  eastern  United  States  have  been 
largely  cleared  away  to  give  place  to  fertile  and 
productive  farms,  large  cities,  numerous  transporta- 
tion lines,  and  all  that  goes  to  make  progressive, 
thrifty  nations,  with  large  populations. 

The  great  populations  of  China,  J apan,  and  India 
are  supported  on  areas  originally  covered  by  tem- 
perate or  tropical  forests,  steppes  or  savanas. 

The  dense  tropical  forests  support  a very  sparse 
population.  The  hunting  tribes  can  not  thrive  in 
large  numbers.  The  labor  of  clearing  the  forest  is 
too  great  to  be  carried  on  to  advantage  in  such  a 
warm,  moist  climate.  Cleared  land  rapidly  returns 
to  forest  unless  kept  clear  by  constant  effort. 

By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  total  population 
of  the  world  (1,500,000,000)  lives  on  land  originally 
occupied  by  rich  steppe  or  savana,  or  by  deciduous 
forest,  or  a moderate  growth  of  tropical  forest. 


26 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


These  well-populated  regions  occupy  only  a small 
fraction  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth.  Study  a 
population  map  of  the  earth.  See  Longmans’  Atlas, 
map  8. 

Pictures.  Your  text  books  and  reference  books 
will  furnish  many  pictures  illustrating  the  vegeta- 
tion zones  of  the  earth. 

The  best  pictures  for  use  in  this  study  are  to  be 
found  in  the  “600  set”  of  stereographs  and  lantern 
slides  published  by  the  Keystone  View  Co.,  Mead- 
ville,  Pa. 

The  following  numbers  from  the  “600  set”  show 
vividly  the  vegetation  zones,  both  in  their  natural 
state,  and  under  human  occupation.  The  numbers 
refer  to  the  serial  numbers  of  the  “600  set”: 

I.  Cold  deserts.  175,176,221,222,223,224,225, 
256,  257,  258,  356,  421,  423,  424,  425,  433,  434. 

II.  Hot  deserts  and  semi-deserts,  including  irri- 
gated districts.  173,  181,  196, 197,  198,  200,  201,  293, 
294,  490,  508,  576,  577,  578,  582,  584. 

III.  Steppes  and  Prairies.  143,  146,  147,  150, 
151, 152, 153, 154, 174, 189, 190, 191,  220,  515,  517,  593. 

IV.  Savanas,  or  savanas  with  considerable 
forest.  288,  289,  290,  291,  322,  323. 

V.  Temperate  forests.  6,  8,  10,  17,  26,  35,  36,  41, 

42,  43,  44,  94,  108,  109,  113,  119,  124,  129,  130,  131, 
132,  170,  171,  172,  214,  215,  216,  217,  218,  219,  261, 

262,  264,  267,  340,  341,  342,  343,  344,  345,  347,  349, 

. 351,  359,  366,  367,  368,  369,  370,  371,  372,  375,  376, 

394,  397,  399,  414,  416,  464,  475,  476,  482,  483,  488, 

519,  530,  539,  556,  559,  566. 


VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 


27 


VI.  Tropical  forests.  122,  123,  226,  229,  231, 
232,  235,  239,  240,  241,  243,  244,  249,  250,  251,  252, 
253,  254,  301,  302,  304,  305,  306,  307,  309,  310,  314, 
315,  316,  325,  492,  512,  569,  600. 

Note.  A complete  catalog  of  the  “600  set”  of 
stereographs  and  lantern  slides  will  be  sent  free  on 
request  by  Keystone  View  Co.,  Meadville,  Pa.  The 
catalog  contains  directions  for  the  use  of  pictures, 
very  helpful  to  teachers. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS 

VEGETATION  ZONES  OF  THE  EARTH 

I.  Introduction. 

II.  A bird’s-eye  view  of  the  world. 

1.  Areas  of  land  and  water. 

2.  Areas  of  vegetation  on  the  land. 

a.  Desert. 

b.  Grassland. 

c.  Forest. 

III.  Conditions  necessary  for  plant  growth. 

1.  Heat. 

2.  Moisture. 

3.  Soil. 

IV.  The  vegetation  zones. 

1.  Deserts. 

a.  Hot  deserts. 

b.  Cold  deserts. 


28 


IMPORTANT  TOPICS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


2.  Grasslands. 

a.  Steppes  and  prairies. 

b.  Savanas. 

3.  Forests. 

a.  Temperate  forests. 

b.  Tropical  forests. 

V.  Outline  to  be  memorized. 

VI.  Maps  of  vegetation  zones. 

VII.  Location  of  vegetation  zones  by  latitude. 

VIII.  Vegetation  zones  and  wind  belts. 

IX.  Man’s  use  of  the  vegetation  zones. 

X.  Pictures. 


Note  to  the  Teacher. — After  the  pamphlet  has  been  carefully 
studied,  and  the  pupils  have  discovered  in  the  text  the  general  out- 
line as  given  above,  a strong  review  lesson  may  be  had  by  asking 
pupils  to  expand  the  Topical  Analysis  as  here  given  into  a much 
more  detailed  analysis  in  which  the  important  sub-topics  shall  be 
shown  under  each  of  the  main  topics. 


Normal  School  Series  of 
Outline  Maps  and  Observation 
Blanks 

These  Maps  and  Blanks  have  been  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
Douglas  C.  Ridgley,  of  the  Department  of  Geography, 
of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University 

Published  by  McKNIGHT  & McKNIGHT,  Normal,  Illinois 


The  List  of  Maps  and  Blanks,  Thus  Far  Issued, 
Includes  the  Following: 


1.  Illinois. 

2.  United  States. 

3.  United  States  (without 

drainage.) 

4.  North  America. 

5.  North  America  (without 

drainage.) 

6.  South  America. 

7.  Europe. 

8.  Asia. 

9.  Africa. 

10.  Australia. 

11.  The  World. 

12.  Normal  University  Campus 

(Topographic  Map.) 

13.  Eurasia. 


14.  Missouri. 

15.  Iowa. 

16.  Wisconsin. 

17.  Indiana. 

51.  Ruled  Blank  for  Recording 

Observations  of  the  Sun. 

52.  Ruled  Blank  for  Recording 

Observations  of  the  Moon. 

53.  Ruled  Blank  for  Recording 

Weather  Observations 
without  instruments. 

54.  Ruled  Blank  for  Recording 

Weather  Observation’s 
without  instruments. 

55.  Ruled  Blank  for  Recording 

Observations  of  Planets 
and  Stars. 


History  Maps 


101.  Southern  United  States  and 

Mexico. 

102.  New  England  and  New 

Netherlands. 


103.  Eastern  United  States  and 

Canada. 

104.  NortheasternUnited States. 

105.  Southeastern  United  States. 


New  Maps  are  being  issued  as  the  demand  arises 


PRI.CES 

Ten  or  more  maps  or  Blanks  assorted,  1 cent  each;  per  hundred,  80  cents;  per 
thousand,  $6.50,  except  numbers  12  and  101,  which  are  double  size  and  count  each 
as  two  maps.  These  prices  are  postpaid,  to  any  address  in  the  United  States. 


McKNIGHT  & McKNIGHT,  Publishers 

NORMAL,  ILLINOIS 


Normal  School  Series  of 
Outline  Maps  and  Observation 
Blanks  W 

The  maps  and  blanks,  in  sets,  bound  in  strong  manila  covers, 
arranged  with  special  reference  to  the  Illinois  State  Course  of  Study 
in  Geography  and  History.  Price  per  set  made  on  a basis  of  1 cent 


for  each  map  or  blank.  pHce  Per  Set 

Fourth  Year  Geography  . . . . 10c 

Fifth  Year  Geography  ....  25c 

Seventh  Year  Geography  ....  25c 

Eighth  Year  Geography  ....  35c 

Physical  Geography  .....  35c 

Commercial  Geography  ....  35c 

Sixth  Year  History  .....  15c 

Seventh  Year  History  .....  20c 

Eighth  Year  History  .....  20c 

Map-Nets  ......  10c 

The  following  sets  have  been  arranged  for  schools  having  a 
Course  of  Study  of  their  own: 

Observation  Blanks  .....  10c 

Elementary  Geography  ....  25c 

Trip  Around  the  World  ....  15c 

Outline  Maps  of  North  America  . . . 20c 

Outline  Maps  of  South  America  . . . 10c 

Outline  Maps  of  Europe  ....  15c 

Outline  Maps  of  Asia  .....  10c 

Outline  Maps  of  Africa  ....  10c 

Outline  Maps  of  Australia  ....  10c 

Map-Nets  of  the  World,  with  notes  . . . 10c 


Sets  of  Maps,  combining  any  numbers  of  the  above  list,  will  be 
put  up  specially  on  request,  providing  there  are  not  less  than  ten 
maps  in  a set. 

In  ordering  a number  of  sets  in  which  the  aggregate  number  of 
maps  is  100  or  1000,  the  price  will  be  the  same  as  for  the  single  maps 
or  blanks,  notwithstanding  they  are  bound  in  substantial  covers. 

For  further  information  address 

McKNIGHT  & McKNIGHT,  Publishers 

NORMAL,  ILLINOIS 


List  of 

Supplementary  Readers  and 
Books  for  Teachers 


Selected  Readings  for  First  and  Second  Grades 

Rimes  and  Stories  .......  35c 

Classic  Stories  for  the  Little  Ones 

Teachers’  edition  ......  40c 

Pupils’  edition  ......  35c 

Songs  of  the  Tree  Top  and  Meadow  ....  40c 

Stories  of  Indian  Children  .....  40c 

For  Primary  and  Intermediate  Grades 

The  Little  Cliff-Dwellers  .....  35c 

Robinson  Crusoe  for  Boys  and  Girls 

Teachers’  edition  ......  40c 

Pupils’  edition  ......  35c 

The  Story  of  Ulysses  ......  50c 

Wagner  Opera  Stories  ......  50c 

The  Lolami  Books  (2  vols.)  each  ....  50c 

Tales  of  Troy  .......  35c 

History  and  Nature  Stories  for  Intermediate  and 
Grammar  Grades 

The  Fly-Aways  and  Other  Seed  Travelers  . . . 60c 

Stories  of  Indian  Chiefs  ......  40c 

The  Story  of  Lincoln  ......  35c 

Pioneers  of  the  Revolution  .....  35c 

The  King  and  His  Wonderful  Castle  ....  35c 

Jack  and  Nell  in  Field  and  Forest  ....  50c 

Out  Door  Studies  in  Geography  (2  parts),  each  part  . . 60c 

Bound  together  . . . . . $1.00 

The  Story  of  Our  English  Grandfathers,  introductory,  75c;  mail  1.00 


Books  for  Teachers 


Jean  Mitchell’s  School  . . . . $1.00 

Glimpses  of  Child  Nature  . . .50 

The  Point  of  View  of  Modern  Education  .60 
Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography  . .50 

School  and  Home  Education,  per  year  . 1.25 

(A  Magazine  all  teachers  will  find  of  interest) 


For  the  High  School 


Lampe’s  Latin  Drill  Book  . . . $0.25 

Lampe’s  German  Drill  Book  . .•  . .25 

Music 


Elements  of  Music  and  Notation  . . .25 

By  F.  W.  Westhoff,  Director  of  Music,  Illinois  State  Normal  University 
Normal,  Illinois 


Dealers  and  Teachers  ordering 
a number  of  copies  at  one  time  will  be 
allowed  the  usual  trade 
discount 


For  further  information  address 

Mcknight  & Mcknight 

N ORMAL:ILLINOIS 


3 0112  072884338 


Geographical  Pamphlet 
Series 


Dealing  with 
Important  Topics  in 
Geography 


15c 


15c 


15c 


15c 


General  Circulation  of  the  Atmosphere  . • 

By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 

Rainfall  of  the  Earth 

By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 

Vegetation  Zones  of  the  Earth  .... 

By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 

Population  of  the  Earth  (now  being  prepared)  . 

By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 

A Trip  Around  the  World  on  the  Fortieth  Parallel  of 

North  Latitude 10c 

By  Douglas  C.  Ridgley 

Norfnal  School  Series  of  Outline  Maps  and  Observation 
Blanks,  each lc 

(These  are  also  put  up  in  sets  in  strong  manila  covers,  each 
set  in  an  envelope,  for  Geography  and  History  work  in  the 
grades  and  high  school.) 


McKnight  & McKnight 

Publishers 

NORMAL,  ILLINOIS 


